Essay --

PatriarchyThe literal translation of the word Patriarchy from is the rule of the man. A patriarchal system is one of social relations among males which creates and maintains the domination of wo men(Anderson, 1988, p.8 Meta.pdf). In a patriarchal order of magnitude this ideology is found in most spheres, including religion, authorities and economy (Moghadam, 1992 IPV2012.pdf). Its continuity is further guaranteed by raising children according to gender role stereotypes (Dobash & Dobash, 1979 IPV2012). These stereotypes include toughness and assertiveness for men and modesty and furbish up with the quality of life for women14 Men be also raised to cherish instrumental goals such as task accomplishment, domination and acquisition of power (Meta.pdf) women are socialized toward interdependence or nurtural goals, such as cooperation or caregiving According to Talcott Parsons (Parsons, 1955) model of total role segregation, women are supposed to be engaged with housework and raisi ng children, while being away from the workplace and leaving career advancement to men source. Many developing countries also have natural depression level of female participation in government and the work force Wife abuseSpouse abuse, otherwise known as domestic hysteria or well-educated partner violence (IPV) has various forms such as, battering, rape, economic deprivation, using weapons etc. Shipway, . Violence against women is serious issue in many countries. A recent survey by WHO found that more than 50 percent of women in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Peru and Tanzania reported having been subjected to physical or sexual violence by intimate partners, with figures going up to 71 percent in rural Ethiopia. WHO Wife abuse is associated with urban residence, poverty a... ...other words, patriarchy is by far the most great factor that contributes to the justification of IPV.It is also worth noting that a similar survey which interviewed 450 women in the West Bank found that 59% o f women believed wife abuse was warrant in certain situations, particularly in cases when a wife abused the husband. Therefore, it can be concluded, that in Palestinian society both women are men are deeply affected by patriarchal ideology and both are prone to justify wife abuse. Palestine is a complex society with a multitude of problems. The apparent and pressing issue of wife abuse has various factors for it, such as Israeli occupation and political violence. However, the main soil for the justification and proliferation of wife abuse is patriarchal ideology, ingrained in both spouses and in society as well as the legal system as a whole. Religion

DJ Scratch Info :: essays research papers

Turntablism - The art of manipulating/restructuring previously existing phonograph recordings to produce new, musically creative combinations of sounds using turntables and a mixer. Hamster Style - Normally a DJ setup would be configured with the right turntable playing on the right channel of the mixer and the go forth turntable playing on the left channel of the mixer. With a hamster style setup, however, the opposite is true. The right turntable plays through the left channel, and the left turntable plays through the right channel. Many DJs find it more comfortable to scratch hamster style since to do many moves it is easier to bounce the fader off of the side of the fader slot using your nonuple fingers rather than your thumb. Personally I think that hamster style seems more conducive to flaring and doing continuous crabs. DJ members of the Bullet Proof Scratch Hamsters/Space Travellers bunch are most commonly recognized as the first DJs to practice/demonstrate this style th us giving it the nickname "hamster" style. There are ii ways to achieve this mixer configuration. One is to physically hook your turntables up to the opposite channels where they come into the back of your mixer, and the other is with a hamster switch. Normally a hamster switch only reverses your crossfaders configuration, while physically reversing your turntable cables reverses the crossfader and volume faders configuration. Hamster Switch - A switch on a mixer that reverses the crossfader without reversing the volume faders so that you corporation scratch hamster style without physically hooking up the turntables to different channels on the back of the mixer. Baby Scratch - The simplest of scratches, the baby scratch is performed without the use of the crossfader by simple moving the record back and forth. A simple example would be one forward stroke, and one backward stroke (or vice versa) in sequence. Forward and Backward Scratches - Forward and backward scratches ar e also fairly simple scratches but unlike the baby scratch they are performed using the fader to manage the sound in and out. As an example, to perform 2 forward scratches you would just do two baby scratches with your record hand using your fader hand to get up the sound in when you move the record forward both times and out while youre pulling the record back both times so that all you hear are the 2 forward strokes.

Assessing Crime Trends as a Security Specialist Essay -- Crime

Crime is known as an action or omission that constitutes an hitense that may be prosecuted by the state and is punishable by law. Depending on where one may reside, various punishments from certain crimes can depend on the governmental bodies. Also crimes can vary by the jurisdiction from state to state. For most crimes, after a completion of affirmative action one can be punished for the conduct. Many people gravel the confidence that crimes are the result of intentional conduct, when most of the time it is negligent conduct such as speeding. When there is a significant change in the reputation of chosen crime types within a defined geographical region and stretch of time, is known as a crime trend. When crime trends in different areas are being assessed, various methods are used in order to collect the data that is needed.When first assessing crime one may ask, What is the cause of crime. Criminologists have looked at a ride range to explain the factors on why people tend t o commit crimes. Many of these factors can be looked at through and through different societies, cultures, and families. These aspects can be brought on by certain emotions such as anger, greed, jealousy, and sometimes through getting a rush for carrying out such acts (for example stealing). In the article 10 Causes of Crime By Talidari, reveals 10 different causes on how crime commences Weakness regarding lack of faith and/or imbalance, brusque judgment lack of proper education, Lack of love living in a dysfunctional family, Poverty poor families tend and unemployment, Deprived neighborhoods Economically penniless neighborhoods, TV violence, Being a victim in a chain of events being in the wrong place at the wrong time and getting sucked in, Poor parenting... ...The report will also be more precise for the security specialist from the media taken and the reports. Just by looking off charts off of the internet that can be compared to the average in the U.S. without evidenc e can be sometimes cause disbelief. In order to be able to full implement protection the different factors stated will make for safer living.Works CitedCareless, J. (2012). Video evidence. Retrieved from http//www.cba.org/CBA/practicelink/leadership_technology/video_evidence.aspxCrime and arrest reports. (2012). Retrieved from http//www.dcjs.virginia.gov/about/spotlight/crimeReport/Dutelle, A. (2010, January). Documenting the crime scene. Retrieved from http//www.evidencemagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content& occupation=view&id=184Talidari. (2012). Hub pages. Retrieved from http//talidari.hubpages.com/hub/10-causes-of-crime

Nursing Process Change Paper -- pre-operative management

The pre-operative stage is an important phase in forbearings surgery process. This is the time where the patients is experiencing a lot of anxiety issues and have questions regarding the impending procedure. To help ensure good patient outcomes, it is imperative to provide complete surgical instructions and discharge instructions (Allison & George, 2014). It is the nurses duty to safe guard and protects the patients welfare during the surgical experience. Effective preoperative preparation is known to produce postoperative pain management and recovery. Health professionals need to be cognizant of the contextual factors that influence patients preoperative experiences and give context appropriate care (Aziato & Adejumo, 2014). This essays attempts to regale the elements of pre-operative management and issues that could potentially cause surgery delays or cancelation at the Veterans Affairs Southern Nevada Healthcare System (VASNHS) Surgical Specialty Outpatient department. Moreover, it also depicts the need for a new pre-operative management system. Assessment New consults for the Surgical Specialty Outpatient department comes from the primary care provider. During the initial visit the surgeon evaluates the patient and discusses the plan of care. If patient requires surgery, the surgeon orders pre-operative tests such as blood work, urine test, electrocardiogram (EKG) and chest X-rays. After completing the breach slip, a hand written operating dwell (OR) request form, the surgeon hands it to the primary care nurse of that particular Surgical Specialty clinic. The nurse then turns in a copy of the buck slip to the operating room scheduler and another copy to the nurse pre-operative unit. There are instances... ... 26, 2014.Mitchell, M. (2013). Anaesthesia type, gender and anxiety. Journal Of Perioperative Practice, 23(3), 41-46. Retrieved from http//ozone.nsc.edu8080/login?url=http//search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=20120 30991&site=ehost-live on on April 27, 2014.Pritchard, M. (2012). Pre-operative assessment of elective surgical patients. Nursing Standard, 26(30), 51-56. Retrieved from http//ozone.nsc.edu8080/login?url=http//search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2011513584&site=ehost-live on April 26, 2014.Shapiro, F. E., Punwani, N., & Urman, R. D. (2013). Putting the persevering Into Patient Safety Checklists. AORN Journal, 98(4), 413-418. doi10.1016/j.aorn.2013.08.003. Retrieved from http//ozone.nsc.edu8080/login?url=http//search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2012318462&site=ehost-live on April 26, 2014.

World War Two Essay -- WWII World War 2 Essays

World War Two On June 18, 1812, President Madison of the United States and Congress declared war on Great Britain. On June 25, the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte led his army in Europe across the Nieman River into Russia.(1) Although these two events were thousands of kilometers apart they were right away connected to each other. To some extent, the Americans declared war in protest against measures that were part of Britains effort to defeat Napoleon with the use of blockades. There are numerous interesting aspects to the War of 1812, including the fact of why it even happened. Britain and the United States had more reasons to remain friends than to start a war. The intent of this essay is to examine American and British objectives during this war, and despite the Treaty of Ghent, conclude Canadians won the War of 1812.Britain, in their eagerness to starve out France, set up a series of blockades along the European coast.(2) These blockades sought to exclude neutral ships fro m trading with France and her Allies. The very powerful British proud Navy would search American vessels, most times within horizon of land. British deserters provided England with the excuse it needed to search American ships at sea. Desertions were commonplace in the Royal Navy, harsh treatment and punishments were a way of life to British seamen. In comparison, crews on American merchant vessels enjoyed much better treatment, lots of food, good pay and above all, limited punishment. Royal Navy boarding parties every which way selected deserters who, for their crimes were whipped, strung up by the yardarm or keelhauled.(3) As a bonus, the British impressed, kidnapped would be a better word, the most fit and healthy among the American crews into the Royal Navy, and in most cases seized the cargo. Facing well armed British warships, American merchant ships were powerless to resist and were sometimes captured outright. This treatment of American people and vessels at sea would not go unnoticed by the newly formed colonies of the United States. In his speech to congress June 1,1812 President Madison anger at the British Royal Navy and their tactics on the open seas, was very apparentThousands of American citizens under the safeguard of public law and the national sag down have been torn from their country and everything dear to them... Against this crying enormity, which Great Brit... ...ton, Flames Across The Border, p.224-543.Ibid., p.22544.Ibid., p.22645.Ibid., p.22746.Stanley, 1812 domain of a function Operations, p.26047.Ibid., p.26148.Ibid., p.26849.Berton, Flames Across The Border, p.4050.Ronald Way, The Day of Chryslers Farm, Canadian Geographic Journal (June,1961) p.21651.Berton, Flames Across The Border, p.28352.Stanley, 1812 Land Operations, p.34053.Ibid., p.37754.Ibid., p.33855.Ibid., p.38156.Ibid., p.39357.Glen Frankfurter, Baneful Domination (Ontario, 1971) p.113-458.Morton, Military History. p.7059.Berton, Flames Across The Border. p.40560.Ri chard Gwyn, The 49th Paradox Canada in North America (Toronto, 1985) p.2261.Frankfurter, Baneful Domination. p.113-462.Berton, Flames Across The Border. p.22-363C.P. Stacey, The War of 1812 In Canadian History. Ontario History (Summer 1958) p.154-564.Arthur Campbell Turner, The Unique Partnership Britain and The United States(New York, 1971) p.3365.Robert Craig Brown and S.F. Wise, Canada Views The United States (Washington, 1967) p.42

World War Two Essay -- WWII World War 2 Essays

World War Two On June 18, 1812, chairwoman capital of Wisconsin of the United States and Congress declared war on Great Britain. On June 25, the French emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte led his army in Europe crosswise the Nieman River into Russia.(1) Although these two events were thousands of kilometers apart they were directly connected to each other. To some extent, the Americans declared war in protest against measures that were part of Britains effort to defeat Napoleon with the workout of blockades. There are many interesting aspects to the War of 1812, including the fact of why it even happened. Britain and the United States had more reasons to remain friends than to start a war. The intent of this bear witness is to examine American and British objectives during this war, and despite the Treaty of Ghent, conclude Canadians won the War of 1812.Britain, in their eagerness to starve out France, set up a series of blockades along the European coast.(2) These blockades sought to excl ude neutral ships from trading with France and her Allies. The very powerful British majestic Navy would search American vessels, virtually times within sight of land. British deserters provided England with the excuse it needed to search American ships at sea. Desertions were commonplace in the Royal Navy, harsh preaching and punishments were a way of life to British seamen. In comparison, crews on American merchant vessels enjoyed much better treatment, lots of food, good pay and above all, limited punishment. Royal Navy boarding parties arbitrarily selected deserters who, for their crimes were whipped, strung up by the yardarm or keelhauled.(3) As a bonus, the British impressed, kidnapped would be a better word, the most outburst and healthy among the American crews into the Royal Navy, and in most cases seized the cargo. Facing well armed British warships, American merchant ships were powerless to resist and were sometimes captured outright. This treatment of American people and vessels at sea would not go unnoticed by the newly formed colonies of the United States. In his speech to congress June 1,1812 President Madison anger at the British Royal Navy and their tactics on the open seas, was very apparentThousands of American citizens under the safeguard of usual law and the national flag have been torn from their country and everything dear to them... Against this crying enormity, which Great Brit... ...ton, Flames Across The Border, p.224-543.Ibid., p.22544.Ibid., p.22645.Ibid., p.22746.Stanley, 1812 Land Operations, p.26047.Ibid., p.26148.Ibid., p.26849.Berton, Flames Across The Border, p.4050.Ronald Way, The Day of Chryslers Farm, Canadian geographic Journal (June,1961) p.21651.Berton, Flames Across The Border, p.28352.Stanley, 1812 Land Operations, p.34053.Ibid., p.37754.Ibid., p.33855.Ibid., p.38156.Ibid., p.39357.Glen Frankfurter, Baneful Domination (Ontario, 1971) p.113-458.Morton, Military History. p.7059.Berton, Flames Across The Border. p. 40560.Richard Gwyn, The 49th Paradox Canada in North America (Toronto, 1985) p.2261.Frankfurter, Baneful Domination. p.113-462.Berton, Flames Across The Border. p.22-363C.P. Stacey, The War of 1812 In Canadian History. Ontario History (Summer 1958) p.154-564.Arthur Campbell Turner, The Unique Partnership Britain and The United States(New York, 1971) p.3365.Robert Craig Brown and S.F. Wise, Canada Views The United States (Washington, 1967) p.42

The changes in ethnic cultures over the years in America

The USA is consists of a wide variety of cultural and ethic groups. much(prenominal) smorgasbord has variously been described as being a resolve pot, cultural mosaic or evens still a tossed salad. Such ethnicities include Chi pukeo, Afro-Latin American, Asian American, American-Indian and African-American. Such masss dis closedown different cultural elements through frameworking, food, ceremonies and recreation. aboriginal Americans wee evolved from the interaction of typical US kitchen-gardening plus subjection to alien government structures, ideology, and amicable arrangement with different autochthonal Americans traditional civilizations.Present Native Americans usher real common features which, to some extent, may be a merger of conventional elements, adaptive tactics, as well as different civilisation levels to prevailing finishs. Such elements include a persisting feeling of pride regarding cultural legacy a judgment of conviction in spirit and soundbox inter relation dependence upon relationship networks and extended society and culturally unique communication methods (Amoko, 2000, 377). The communication style so depicted is less spoken and less subscribe to comp atomic number 18d to that of mainstream USA culture.It endangers courtesy standards and suitable interaction standards. African Americans atomic number 18 in touch with some conscious knowledge of existing as an ingredient of a pigeonholing having a specific historical position and some political association with different groups in the USA. Additionally, particular African Americans brace common orbit viewpoints and affiliations which atomic number 18 based upon aspects of Protestantism, conventional African culture and indenturehood, subordination and slavery inside United States society.Every African American does not insure a obscure uniqueness. Possession of such identity implies that reference grouping functions within individual identity become grounded within an individuals blackness (Tamase, 2007, 476). The values, cultural favorites, aesthetical flavors, leisure actions, food preferences and cooking methods, religious and secular musical preferences, church association, group membership, plus social associations or close friends all be disadvantage by individual app arnt relationship with black persons.Therefore, several or majority of the hope and meaning individuals have for leading purposeful lifestyles be related to personal self-perception as African-Americans (Azoulay, 1999, 364). Africentric viewpoints of the world are characterized by common responsibility, interdependence and cooperation. Protestantism within black civilization promotes collectivity and group unity. Extended families are the suitable examination for African American family studies. With no regard to revenue levels, African Americans let on more probability of living together with extended family relatives.African American place substantially more value to spiritual matters in treating and causing developmental plus other physical disabilities. Rather that, or on coronate of, seeking medical checkup checkup help or consulting rehabilitation schemes, numerous African Americans greatly depend upon alliance assistance, especially church aid. Parents of African American children exhibit wider perceptions regarding normalcy plus they possess a broader variety of expectations regarding developmental landmarks in the behavior of children as compared to numerous educational experts (Pincheon, 2000, 273).The Hispanic culture exhibits high diversity as regards ethnicity, Culture, economic and education levels, and geographic source. However, certain commonalities as regards beliefs, customs as well as world viewpoints exist. Conventional Hispanics exhibit a culture founded on catholic philosophy with inextricable intertwining of native South American and central ideologies anxietying the world.Characteristics identified from Hispanic cul tures include the dominance of the family concept having a simply defined authority hierarchy an individualized though ritualistic admiration based upon selfhood as opposed to achievement, and that which makes persons from conventional Hispanic civilization to feel at ease amid north American-type professionalism that accords pry based on a persons possession of particular skills and devaluation of persons with darker skin and according of more value to social standing (Amoko, 2000, 376)Viewpoints regarding disability among Hispanics are prejudiced by convictions regarding the interaction of spiritual and physical realms. Families, acting as very influential support organizations, regard certain situations as being only reflections of personal differences as opposed to disability. They thus adapt work and family roles in order to put up with such differences (Anderson, 2004, 346). Nevertheless, innate disability, particularly developmental types, is regarded as a shame within tra ditional Hispanic families.Numerous conventional families, despite the fact that they could look for aid from conventional wellness structures, likewise could look for assistance from traditional healers and clergy members. However, acculturated, urbanized Hispanics do not exhibit much utilization of traditional healers run. A 1991 survey involving seventy quintuplet Mexican women revealed that 97% were conversant with traditional healing and in excess of 50% had already been subjected to folk healing (Dernbach, 2005, 503).Thus, for numerous Mexican Americans, traditional medical services as well as folk therapy are crucial, with each tackling various requirements in various ways. The Asian American group is very backbreaking to explain owing to huge racial disparities among groupings and disparities regarding language, culture and religion. It comprises close to 5 percent of the American population. However, certain commonalities exhibit themselves because the core of eastern c ivilizations is harmony and collectivity.Such cultures exhibit characteristics such as social regulation harmony regulations regarding propriety benevolence filial faithfulness cooperation loyalty obligation and reciprocity. Such qualities exist in a structure of arranged relationships and roles which focus on interdependence and subordination. A conviction regarding the preeminence of the collective harmony over the individual is further exhibited in respect to history (Amoko, 2000, 382). American having Chinese lineage exhibit high levels of social harmony (collectivism) as opposed to individualism portrayed within mainstream USA culture.Such concern for harmony-within-hierarchy borrows heavily from Confucian ideology and usually persists to influence American with Chinese lineage. Such preoccupation with conventional Chinese culture regarding operation in merged and well-defined social linkages could result to certain Chinese Americans expecting similar well-defined system and f unction within a counseling (rehabilitation) relationship (Simon-Klutz, 2002, 284). The client-oriented viewpoint employ by numerous USA rehabilitation therapists could be regarded as too ambiguous by clients of Chinese descent. Pacific civilization exhibits cultural observations like observing humility, respect, family social occasion and choice and being and living with ones family. Conventional pacific Culture reveres family life plus the safeguarding of family respect. For instance, within conventional Samoan traditions, individuals are conferred identity only if they can illustrate their relationships to alga or the extended family (Tamase, 2007, 472). Individual requirements, eccentricities and objectives should be suppressed to benefit the family grouping.Within Samoa as well as in the greater Pacific region, punishing restraints against exposure of family issues to outside parties exist. The language used among American Samoans originates from the Austronesian linguistic family. The subgroups are Tuvalu, Tokelu and Samoan. Residents of American Samoa speak both English and Samoan languages. Symbolism among Samoans exists in from of the Samoan way or fasamoa. This includes beliefs, traditions and attitudes symbolizing a world viewpoint explaining suitable way of life, common through out the archipelago (Anderson, 2004, 349).Ancient Samoans cultivated taro and yams, kept chickens, dogs and pigs and practiced lapita pottery. They sailed using double-hulled sea vessels. Under United States navy government, Samoan culture was preserved when it was not counter to us regulations. Hereditary and talking chiefs had consent to continue assemblage forms to handle local politics. Up to the 1900s, Samoans practiced rural lifestyles and this still is the case within many villages out of Pago Pago Bay and outlying isles. urbanization has been slightly attained near the airfield and Pago Pago bay.Up to the 1950s, fale or traditional homes consisted of ovoid str uctures having corral pebble floors plus round wood prop underneath a beehive-like jacket enveloped by sugarcane leaves thatch. Such open residences promoted contact with members of the public and declareed little privacy (Esbenshade, 2004, 351). Many firesideholds had a sleeping plus a cooking house of smaller size located at the rear, several owned guest houses for hosting visitors. Starting in the 1970s, construction of hurricane concrete houses having corrugated metallic roofs has been encouraged by the American administration to reduce tempest damage.Such rectangular houses exhibit increased privacy since they have windows, doors, and at times room dividers. Houses may also be constructed from brick or wood (Amoko, 2000, 385). Traditional homes had minimal furnishings consisting only of sleeping and sitting mats nonetheless, contemporaneous houses exhibit full furnishing with most having telephones and television. Parliamentary structures are of the conventional elliptical shape, as well as community school structures, sections of the airfield terminal and the growers commercialize.Several dividing line buildings at present depict American building designs. Staple foodstuffs in American Samoa include breadfruit, taro, coconuts, bananas, mangoes, papayas, chicken, canned corned beef, seafood and pork. Occasional foods include potatoes, onions, lettuce, carrots, cabbages, tomatoes and beans. Mostly foodstuffs found within us markets are in stock in supermarkets (Anderson, 2004, 356). broad ago, food was eaten during the mid-morning plus early dusk. Food gets cooked although it could be eaten raw. Majority of families sat on mats down on the ground in the traditional times.Guests and elders get served ab initio and children and women eat last. Owing to changing work cycle, now families have three mealtimes per day. Majority of Tutuila restaurants concentrate on American plus other alien foods, and several present more conventional Samoan foodstuffs (Pincheon, 2000, 277). Foods dished up during ceremonial functions include entire pigs plus daily fare potato salad puddings palusami helicopter suey ice cream and cakes. A lot of food is prepared and served during special occasions as guest may carry home excess servings.Kava, which is a slightly narcotic, none-alcoholic drink, is given to chiefs during ceremonial events. Majority of land is possessed by Samoans except for a little church and government owned land. Traditional common land ownership was done through aiga and was governed by matai and this remains the case up to now. Several whites who were spouses to women from Samoa obtained land ownership prior to the 1930s at the time land selling was prohibited by the USA navy (Esbenshade, 2004, 351). Personal land buying is currently allowed only fro individuals having a minimum of 50% Samoan ancestry.Majority of business is related to trading in imported commodities and the American dollar is the exchange medium. Eating pla ces are the most popular retail business ventures followed by grocery shops especially little family-operated general shops. Fish handling and canning is the biggest industry. Tuna is canned and exported to the USA. Age is crucial in determining work functions small great deal undertake strenuous undertakings and elderly persons have more inactive, educational and supervisory roles. Children responsibilities are bases in the household while older and middle-aged people assume leadership functions.Formerly a number of persons possess special skills regarding making traditional houses and boats, medicine and fishing (Dernbach, 2005, 511). No real class systems exist within American Samoa. The titles of chiefs are classified to some extent on the basis of ancient traditions. Such titles are reserved to particular families, called aiga just, a number of them are positioned higher and get more respect compared to others. Such ranking is basically important ceremonially because it deci des membership to the village council or fono and the order of serving kava, and everyone gets a speaking opportunity (Azoulay, 1999, 369).Any man can vie to become a matai, because titles get obtained through democratic elections held by the aiga. Prior to adoption of currency economic systems, men performed strenuous agriculture, house building and fishing. Young males prepared most of normal meals and cooked during ceremonial occasions. Women chores included weaving mats, sewing, child nurturing, laundry and by and by preparing meals using contemporary appliances. Majority of such traditional chores persist to attend, however, fresh alternatives are significant.Women and men currently work within banks, tuna factories, stores, schools and tourist ventures. workforce are employed in transportation, construction, government organizations and shipping. Historically, men have dominated Samoan society with women exerting much behind-the-scenes authority authoritative and professi onal posts are mostly held by males, however females occupy significant positions within government organizations and sometimes act as matai (Simon-Klutz, 2002, 282). The youth select wedding partners however marriage remains basically a financial alliance joining families.Previously, chiefs children intermarried, while those having lower statuses usually eloped. Individuals may not marry or date close relatives. Almost all persons marry, often during mid towards late 20s, and marriages involve intricate exchange of gifts by two family units. Divorce cases are uncommon however remarriages among the youth are quite common. Households average 7 persons consisting of a single or additional nuclear family units plus relatives. They involve 3 generations and exhibits flexibility as regards composition. Members are linked by blood, adoption and marriage.Following marriage, reside at the grooms or brides household. Each household is led by a matai. All economic and social activities are go verned by matai (Anderson, 2004, 350). The biggest kin grouping remains aiga that involves every person having a shared ancestor. Such extensive family could have family units in various sections of the village or within a number of villages. Such households matai exert different authority levels in the aiga. Matai resolves family disputes and decides regarding fiscal contributions of a family to funerals, church gifts and weddings.The complete aiga primarily intermingles during funerals, weddings, elections plus matai installation and emergencies within families (http//www. everyculture. com/A-Bo/American-Samoa. html). Infants are accorded much attention and affection and are carried or held in the initial year. Household usually have grandmothers who often act as key babysitters. Usually young kids are overseen by grandmothers or other household females and usually by elder siblings. Respect and reverence for authority and age are instilled from early ages.Educational programs for nursery kids plus universal community school schooling is in place. America Samoans exhibit meticulousness regarding courtesy, especially to chiefs and elderly persons. It is not proper to stand up when other people are sitting. In case an individual gets into a room and finds other persons seated on the ground, they ought to slightly bend and utter tulouna or excuse me. Respectful hurt are employed when holding discussions with chiefs. Etiquette plus reciprocal politeness are used during political and ceremonial events.Prior to influx of missionaries by 1830, the maker of the isles plus the people therein was taken to be Tagaloa and religious headship from families was provided by matai (Tamase, 2007, 475). Initial missionaries were from the London Missionary Society and they established the congregation of Christian Church of American Samoa to which 5% of Samoans belong. The Catholic Church has 20% of Samoan followers while the other 30% is taken by Methodist, Pentecostal and Mo rmon denominations. Western rites are involved during church proceedings with vocal music being a vital element.Devotion of fresh churches has supreme significance and vocal competitions and feasts mark it. Visitors from the USA and close by islands come for such celebrations. Death is regarded as the will of God and the customary conviction that when one dies at a far away stance from their residence such persons spirits trouble survivors continues. Up to the 1980s, funeral services were held one day after one died. Introduction of morgue services permits delayed interment to cater for elatives abroad. During burials, the deceased family is offered gifts.Interment happens on relations land (Dernbach, 2005, 515). April 17th Flag Day is marked by activities like customary grouping singing and dancing, cricket matches, canoe races and speeches. This commemorates the time when the Samoan isles became part of the USA in 1900. Oratory remains a vital custom, and numerous mythology, poet ry and legends have survived owing to usage by talking chiefs during village committee deliberation as well as during ceremonial events (http//www. ncddr. org/products/researchexchange/v04n01/cultures. html).The people of Samoa treasure bark cloth wall-hangings (siapo) plus finemats and regard them as family possessions for exchanging during ceremonial events. Finemat and siapo production increasingly is becoming high-flown. Formerly having tattoos was a prerequisite for being admitted into aumage or qualification fro the title of ac chief. Such art was outlawed within American Samoa a long time ago. However, fresh interest recently draws young males to previously Western Samoa to have the intricate knee-to-upper-abdomen tattoos done on them.Dancing and singing in groups remain popular forms of art. Huge women or men dancing groups perform unified movements characterized by body and hand claps. Village ritual princesses (taupou) perform Solo dances at times accompanied by men prop dancers (http//www. everyculture. com/A-Bo/American-Samoa. html). The face notion, originating from Confucian ideology, among traditional Pacific and Asian Americans makes peoples belief that losing face owing to mental diseases within families could subject families or the person to spiritual or religious crisis.Asians exhibit the least optimistic attitudes towards disabled persons. Numerous Asian Americans are convinced that metaphysical or super congenital forces have a function in disease and health and in misfortune and fortune (Anderson, 2004, 357). Such convictions greatly influence perceptions regarding reasons for disability, therapy of such disability and guilt feelings and shame or responsibility related to having a disabled family member. Conventional Asian Pacific citizens usually source for assistance from sources different from, or on top of, western rehabilitation or medical system.Families will usually desire to seek customary Asian therapies, like herbal medication , or perform particular actions with a view to restoring the equilibrium of the natural world. Asian Americans depend more upon casual social associations as compared to other minorities. American Indians comprise of in excess of five hundred tribal groupings that exhibit great diversity within. Majority of conventional Indian dialects have no word for disabled, handicapped or retarded. Instead of utilizing such classifications, phrases regarding persons descriptive of disabilities, for instance, one-who-walks-with-a-limp or one-arm, may be assigned.Convictions regarding spirit and body interrelatedness contrasts with mainstream belief systems. Strongly traditional American Indians could source for assistance form traditional healers and also the typical rehabilitation and medical systems (http//www. ncddr. org/products/researchexchange/v04n01/cultures. html). Paradigm modifications happen within all disciplines as technology or knowledge advances. Key shifts within such cultural mo dels are comprehensive, rare and significantly impact on cultural, social as well as political precedence within society.Industrial revolutions second stage resulted to contemporary society which is characterized by capitalism, humanist principles, political democratic systems, Newtons physics and transcendental romanticism. Contemporary regimes witnessed the appearance of bourgeoisie, contemporary art plus the conviction that it is possible to understand the earth by applying reason. Modern age also incorporated cultural, economic and political policies on the basis of freedom and equality ideals and progress. Postmodernisms arrival within the 1960s led to slight alterations within contemporary society.Despite the fact that postmodernism dislodged occidental theories plus numerous other ideals related to the contemporary period, it failed to offer the momentum needed to restructure society. This impetus required some circumstances which exposed social injustices prevailed within ex isting economic and political systems and at the equal time offer alternative solutions (Anderson, 2004, 359). America has ceased to be a melting point because it does not incorporate minorities within majority cultures. Currently, there exists diverse pluralism of culture developed by way of acculturation.Such pluralism is described in regard to minorities liberties relative to prevailing culture. Minorities contribute within majority cultures while disregarding the threat of losing their sub-culture uniqueness. racial minorities, religious groupings, and philosophical subcultures exist side by side and stand other groups customs. A non-hierarchical democratic pluralism supported through communication expertise is subbing the prevailing culture. The notion of regarding product utilization as being an end is dying away and focus is directed locally.The majority has discarded its fixation upon consumerism to embrace fresh attention to friends, family plus social groupings having com parable interests. Owing to divisions emanating from cultural wars and facing economic stagnation, the majority culture started self-realignment on the basis of sub-cultural schemes that offer belong and equality (Amoko, 2000, 388). While America is enduring economic woes, fresh social systems are developing within the debris offered by disenfranchised cultures.Majority cultures are experiencing transmutation from a community of financial classes, credit expenditure and consumer principles to an duplication group-centered society. Such shift involves change from getting cultural significance out of purchasing and possessing media-produced patterns consumer commodities, to promoting an extra individualized participatory and personality culture. Such change of priorities emancipates a stressed community and offers a feeling of dignity and authority to society (http//www.culturewars. org. uk/index. php/site/ hold/changing_cultural_paradigm/). The principal culture has ditched the bus iness sponsored political programs, because of the wickedness within oppressive economic and social policies and also owing to the absence of prestige and gratification exhibited by buyer indulgence within the financial crisis. While the principal culture was losing confidence within consumer principles, the pluralism of culture metamorphosed to become pluralism free of hierarchies.Within such fresh systems, privileges and rights alive(predicate) within a democracy get expressed within society with no oppression to lower castes. This seems to be a result of free market financial systems having their majority cultures being hierarchically- arranged. The divisions generated through culture wars merged the diverse and vast multicultural system of hyphenated citizens and subcultures to form a political grouping unify through democratic principles, humanitarian standards, and the requirement to make the playing arena even.Pluralism, which necessarily is not liberal owing to its incorpo ration of every political viewpoint, also existed alongside the cultural war. Such a multicultural grouping became prominent when consumerism faded away from the principal culture, and assumed the role of acting as a representation of the fresh social arrangement (http//www. culturewars. org. uk/index. php/site/article/changing_cultural_paradigm/). Works cited Amoko, Apollo O. Resilient Imaginations No-no Boy, Obasan and the Limits of Minority Discourse. Mosaic, vol.33. 2000 pp. 375-390 Anderson, Crystal S. Racial Discourse and Black-Japanese Dynamics in shipwreck survivor Reeds Japanese by Spring. MELUS, vol. 29, 2004 pp. 345-360 Azoulay, Katya Gibel. The New Colored People The Mixed-race Movement in America. African American Review, vol. 33. 1999 pp. 360-374. Crank, R ip. (April 17th 2009). Culture Wars. ever-changing Cultural Paradigm. Retrieved on 5th may 2009 from http//www. culturewars. org. uk/index. php/site/article/changing_cultural_paradigm/ Culture of American Samoa Foru m. (2007).Culture of American Samoa History and Ethnic Relations, Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of . retrieved on 5th may 2009 from http//www. everyculture. com/A-Bo/American-Samoa. html Dernbach, Katherine Boris. Spirits of the Hereafter Death, Funeral Procession, and the Hereafter in Chuuk, Micronesia. Ethnology, vol. 44, 2005 pp. 502-517 Esbenshade, Jill. Codes of Conduct Challenges and Opportunities for Workers Rights. Social Justice, vol. 31, 2004 pp. 340-355. Pincheon, Bill. A Deeper Territory Race, Gender, Historical Narrative and the Recorded Field Blues.The Western journal of Black Studies, vol. 24, 2000 pp. 270-283. Simon-Klutz, Lufuata. On Being Samoan, on Being Woman (E Au Pea Inailau a Tamaitai) (1). Frontier- A Journal of Womens Studies, vol. 23, 2002 pp. 275-291. Southwest Educational discipline Laboratory. (2004). Descriptions of Ethnic Cultures in the United States. Vol. 4, no. 1. Retrieved on 5th may 2009 from http//www. ncddr. org/products/researchexchange/ v04n01/cultures. html Tamase, Tui Atua Tupua. In Search of Tagaloa, Samoan Mythology and Science. Archaeology in Oceania, vol. 42, 2007 pp. 462-478.

Child centered educstion

The concept of kid-centred bringing up implies that the child occupies the central place in the teaching methodal process. The old concept of education emphasised the importance of the teacher who always remained at the giving end. The modern concept of education gives the pride of place to the child and places him at the centre-stage. Capacities, Needs and Interests of Child As noted above, in child-centred education, the child is the centre of activity.This means, all programmes ar geared to his requirements. In the Dictionary of Education, Prof. P. M. Lohithakshan elaborates the concept of child-centred education by saying that in this type of education educational activities are designed and implemented on the basis of the capacities, needs and interests of children. Curricula, teaching methods, evaluation, co-curricular activities, etc. are all planned accordingly. In the words of Prof. G. L.Arora, Child-centred education means that for the rganisation of disaccordent proc esses of education, childs point of view-his needs, interests and aptitudes should get precedence over the teachers, curriculum developers or evaluators point of view. educational programmes meaningful to Children. In child-centred education, educational programmes make learning more interesting and meaningful to children. Children-active participants In child-centred education, children become active participants in the teaching- learning process. They receive respectable opportunities for active learning, social nteraction, problem solving and creative work in the classroom, says Prof. Lohithakshan. Caters for separate differences Child-centred education caters for individual differences. Psychology and experience tells us that children differ in their innate capacities. So, child-centred education compels the teacher to plan his educational methods to suit individual differences. This means, a teacher cannot employ a particular method without pickings into consideration the n s and requirements ot children.Childs balanced development Child-centred education leads to balanced development of the childs potentialities and his personality. This results from satisfaction of basic needs of children. Summing up To sum up, the concept of child-centred education is based on the assumption that individuals life is self-contained and self- sufficient . That the individual is the end and not the means. According to this view, social institutions exist only to make the individual life better, richer and happier. Child-centred education fulfils this mission.

Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs on and Off the Organizational Stage*

leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs On and t eithery the organisational phase* Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff My purpose is to tell of bodies which have been transformed into shapes of different kinds. You heavenly powers, sinee you were responsible for those changes, as for all else, opine favourably on my attempts, and spin an unbroken thread of verse, from the earliest beginnings of the world, down to my own eons.Ovid Metamorphoses Abstr come Barbara CzarniawsicaJoerges Department of Business Administration, Lund Univer razzy, Lund, Sweden Roif Woiff Gothenburg Research Institute at the inculcate of Economics and Legal Science, Gothenburg, Sweden This paper explores three crucial roles of the organizational theatre managers, drawing cards and entrepreneurs. Changing fashion in the organizational theory debate as well as in organizational practice puts different roles in focus at different times.Organization theory should, accordingly, shift its attention toward studyi ng the contexts in which a given role acquires dominance, in get in of an unreflective discussion of the relative functional advantages of each of them. This paper argues that n nonp aril of the three will constantly go forth of fashion, as they target be attainn as enactments of arche shells, embodying the different fears and hopes of those who create organizations by their daily execution of instrument.Leadership is happenn as symbolic performance, expressing the hope of control everyplace destiny attention as the activity of introducing order by coordinating flows of things and people towards collective action, and entrepreneurship as the making of entire crude worlds. The sociohistoric context inescapably to be considered as the stage-set wherein these roles gain prominence. Introduction Organization Studies 1991, 12/4 529-546 1991 EGOS 0170-8406/91 0012-0022 $2. 00 Leaders atomic number 18 in, managers be out, entrepreneurs are waiting in the corridor.What orders their appearances and disappearances? In an attempt to answer this question, we propose to analyze all three roles, not in terms of organizational effectiveness, however as symbolic expressions of collective hopes and fears, vie out (performed) on the organizational stage. Leaders, managers and entrepreneurs are supposed to serve certain functions in organizations functions which are ascribed to so-called executive director positions. The term executive comes from the times when managers were supposed to unravel the owners will.The separation of ownership and control (Chandler 1977) complicated this simple relationship, opening the way for discussions on the desired form of the executive role. This debate does not take place in a vacuum it accompanies, reflects and influences changes in organizational practices and theories. Just which functions and in what configuration changes, both with theories and with time, because the definition of what executive functions should entail changes in line with master-ideas, whose time comes and goes (Czarniawska-Joerges and Joerges 1990).These, in turn, are related to 530 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff broader changes in the cultural context of organizing (Czarniawska 1986). An ambition to tackle the issues of context leads researchers to obviously relevant aspects such as changes in transaction cycles or changes in political climate. A study of these can of course, if treated with devotion, completely fill more than wholeness research career, and yet there ever remains fewthing unanswered, a phenomenon unexplained, of a kind that conventional organization studies are poorly equipped to grasp.Perhaps the theatre metaphor (Mangham and Overington 1986 Czarniawska-Joerges 1992) would care in describing those ephemeral phenomena. What leads to a change in repertoire of a theatre, a replacement of comedy by tragedy, Shakespeare by Pinter? It is the decision of the way, the wishes of the primadonnas, the cur rent cultural fashion, the frugalal exigencies and much more. In the organizational theatre, the plays performed vary from one season to an new(prenominal), from one director to another, save the general repertoire nabms to be quite traditional, even if it contains both tragedy, comedy and drama.It baron be that the actual playwright is our collective unconscious, to use Jungs term (1934) that in our attitudes toward the central organizational roles, i. e. leaders, managers and entrepreneurs we act out archetypes. This phenomenon escapes the analysts attention because we are used to look for articulation of archetypes in different spheres in falsehoods and legends (Hogenson 1987). In this discussion, we are dealing with archetypes of personalities rather than archetypes of transformation (Jung 1934/1959 322).The latter are typical situations, places, ship canal and means according to Jung (p. 322), or what almost would call scripts (Mandler 1984). The archetypes of persona lities are universal, idealized, boastfulr-than-life symbols that contain the essence of benevolent experience and that help individuals develop an emotionally satisfying picture of the world (Krefting and Frost 1986 164). In other words, we argue that the central organizational roles represent wishes and fears shared by organizational collectives they are symbols which help to ascribe meaning to organizational events. It always seems to us as if meaning compared with life were the puppylikeer event, because we assume, with some estimableification, that we assign it of ourselves, and because we believe, equally rightly no doubt, that the grand world can get along without being interpreted. nevertheless how do we assign meaning? From what source, in the resist analysis, do we derive meaning? The forms we use for assigning meaning are historical categories that fall out hold up into the mist of time a fact we do not take sufficiently into account. (Jung 1934/1959 317) In w hat follows we shall punctuate to show that the continuing debate on those roles reaches indeed back into the mists of time, and although we limit ourselves to a relatively short span of time there are plenty of traces staining further back. Next, we shall attempt to demonstrate that the three roles are complementary in the sense that they answer different conducts or fears of the collective unconscious. In this sense, no role is ever Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 53I out they all have their place in our collective consciousness, even if we at times tire of one and nonplus fascinated with another. To bring forth out the core of these archetypes we shall look for their equivalents in literature and theatre, the traditional fields of symbolic expression. In doing so, we continue and extend the tradition of symbolic interpretation of executive roles (see e. g. Frost and Egri, forthcoming Gustafsson 1984, 1985 Kets de Vries 1989, 1990a, 1990b Westley and Mintzberg 19 89). LeadersIn 1948, Robert Stodgill attempted to wangle a list of traits responsible for leaders achievement, starting with a review by Charles Bird from 1940, which listed 79 traits important for productive leadership, as mentioned in 20 conk outs reviewed. Stodgill updated the list to about 100 traits while observing that different authors did not agree on their importance. When he returned to the field 26 years later in his book Handbook of Leadership, the number of leadership studies reviewed exceeded 3000 (Stogdill 1974).During the 1960s, the concept of organizational leadership began to shift from persons to behavioural styles and then toward the situational factors. Ghiseili (1963), Fiedler (1964), mysterious (1960), and Umanski (1967) were among the best screwn authors who studied leadership and recommended that the leaders should begin by diagnosing the context of their action and should then act accordingly. By the 1970s, the delight in leaders diminished. on t hat point were at least two reasons.One was that, after three decades, researchersfinallyarrived at a contingency theory which proclaimed that leaders success depends on the twin amid their personalities ( thereof incorporating the trait theory), the type of action they choose (the style theory, with its origins in the seminal study by Lewin et al. 1939), and the situation (e. g. Fiedler 1964). This achievement, impressive at the time, was met with some sarcasm twenty years later, when the roams of fashion came and went several times.Wildavskys comments summarize it very well Unfortunately, multiplying traits of leaders, times types of followers, times samples of situations, times group interactions has led to more variety than anyone can manage. (Wildavsky 1984 18) Another, and probably more important reason for abandoning the role of leadership was political frustration at the end of the 1960s. The young Americans saw their favourite leaders killed the young French decided to remove their old, unpopular leaders themselves. McClellands condition on Two faces of power (1970) is a vivid example of anxieties suffered by the older generation in the U.S. when the youth rejected the traditional authority and the conventional career paths. According to this study, the graduates of Harvard and other schools did not want to be leaders anymore, seeing a sliminess face of power even behind the innocent organizational titles. 532 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Managers Thus in the 1970s, charismatic leaders were distinctly out of fashion, and yet there was palliate a need for some sort of authority expression in organizations. The unpretentious managers took the place of leaders.However, Fayols fifty year old description of managerial clear was no longer of use, observed Mintzberg (1971) in an early report from his famous study of the tasks of managers. A new approach was unavoidable and the most typical ensample for a manager of the 1970s was perhaps Druckers (1970) effective executive. The effective executives had no charisma whatsoever. The organizational reality pushed them towards ineffectiveness. Their time belonged to everybody else. They were laboured to focus on operable exigencies to the detriment of reflection and strategic believeing.They were blinded by the walls of organizations, cutting off the worid outside. They were dependent on what other people did or did not do. To all these peeved people, Drucker formulated a message a list of practices allowing for an increase in effectiveness, a set of pragmatic prescriptions on how to manage ones time, how to use accessible resources and how to make decisions (Drucker 1970). Problem-solving capacities were more important than amicable skills and decision-making ability conquered charisma, at least for a while.But power was over again noticed, lurking behind this depersonalized, institutional facade. It has been said that the management-oriented researchers, like t he early positivist organization theorists, . . . believed mankind had to shift from the government of men to the administration of things, as their precursor Saint-Simon had claimed and they felt they were achieving their aims by emphasizing financial stimuli and technical controls instead of human leadership. The delusion that they had suppressed power relationships prevented them from understanding the true nature of their own actions. (Crozier 1964 146)In a sense, this is the same accusation as the one formulated eariier against the leaders, barely with a different rationale behind it. While leaders did not understand the true nature of their actions, blinded by power, the managers were blinded by an illusion that they were bare from power. This issue appears in the debate on both sides, pro-leaders and promanagers. The advocates of leadership say that there is so much power in organizations that it must be formally recognized, whereas the defenders of management tend to say that there are enough power games in organizations without giving them an official status.To leave this circle, let us chime in a third voice. Entrepreneurs The story goes that long before there were any leaders or managers in the companies, there were entrepreneurs. These entrepreneurs created, in fact, the world of business organizations as we know them to mean solar day, employ- Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 533 ing not so much charisma or intellectual capacities as something else willpower. Let us thus make an excursion into the mists of time. In 1921, Josef Schumpeter published an article on the Unternehmer the entrepreneur.In this not very well known article, he explored the character of the business company from a historical point of view, the function of the entrepreneur and finally the modern entrepreneur. Schumpeter saw the origins and functioning of companies as being based on two correlated facts on the one hand, the property rights over the means and so lutions of production and, on the other, what he called a business mentality. The latter led to the development of production techniques, a capitalist economic calculation and market communication structures.The combination of this capitalist mentality and capitalist property rights produced business companies, which became crucial elements of the contemporary socializations, but even more they were, without doubt, the tush for and the condition of such cultures (Schumpeter 1921 47). Thus, a given type of motivational force creates a given type of organization, which results in a given type of culture that, in turn, encourages such motivational forces and permits such organizations. When analyzing the 18th century, one can see entrepreneurs functioning both as employers and owners of capital.Schumpeter, however, had already noticed that these functions can be and are different, and that in modern companies one encounters two different types of people managers and entrepreneurs. commission, according to Schumpeter, is a function consisting of control, of guaranteeing discipline and introducing order a function requiring right smart daily, bureaucratic work. This function, necessary as it is, does not embody what is really characteristic of the capitalist economy. The importance of the entrepreneur is not the management of an live company but the creation of such a company.Schumpeter perceived entrepreneurship as a specific case of social leadership. such social leaders are not outstanding in their task abilities, but in their willpower. This willpower can be studyd into contemporary language as initiative, but, in this case, not an initiative of thought (for example, conception of new ideas), but an initiative of action. The core of entrepreneurial motivation is similar to that of leaders, but entrepreneurship mainly fits contexts which are new and cannot be dealt with by means of experience or routine.Entrepreneurship is leadership in exceptional situa tions and, we might add, is most likely to entail the creation of such situations. Schumpeter stressed repeatedly that entrepreneurship is never a matter of individuals all. It is a phenomenon which has to be analyzed and identified within a hard conglomerate of factors. In saying this, interestingly enough, Schumpeter seemed to anticipate the growing interest in what Mintzberg (1983) calls configurations complex, alive(p) contexts where simple contingencies are not of much use. 34 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff This does not mean that one should neglect other functions. Any economy, at any time, is performing on the basis of existing experiences and routines. Therefore, there will always be a function which has to do with the supervision of these processes (and which we call management). Management, or the routine behaviour in production and business, enables economies to deliver promptly and act in accordance with the requirements of systems which are highly rational a nd therefore predictable.On the macro-level, though, many processes constantly change their situational counterweight. There is a continuous growth of population and the means of production. There are besides non-economic developments which are changing the economy social developments, political influences, and so on. On the micro-level, the equilibrium ceases to exist when individuals see new possibilities, and strive to implement the unveilings they have in mind. The concurrence of macro- and microchanges creates room for entrepreneurs.Paraphrasing Schumpeters ideas in social constructionist terms, one can say that entrepreneurs are people who are the first to see a crack or aflawin a social construction of economic reality, and to interpret it as an opportunity to do their ideas of what the world should look like. As long as this vision is not shared by others, they have to live with an individually constructed reality, which is a heavy interference to bear. What seem to be anecdotal stories of mad inventors and innovators might be actually quite true, in the sense that the unsuccessful inventors are people whose reality did not become socially confirmed.Those who succeeded, though, are the makers of our worlds. Leadership Revisited The neo-conservatism of the 1980s brought to Europe, from beyond the ocean, various nostalgic notions such as free market and leadership (as opposed to negotiated economies and codetermination, the keywords of the 1970s). As far as leadership was concerned, organization theory did not go far beyond Stogdill offering many definitions, many brands of leadership and varying recipes for success (see e. g. Maccoby 1981 Bass 1985 Bennis and gnome 1985).But it is charisma and visions that count most. Bernard Bass asks dramatically What does Lee Iacocca have that many other executives lack? Charisma. What would have happened to Chrysler without him? It probably would have gone bankrupt. (Bass 1984 26) To which Robert B. Reich an swers Many Americans would prefer to think that Lee Iacocca single-handedly saved Chrysler from bankruptcy than to accept the real story a large team of people with diverse backgrounds and interests joined together to carry through the ailing company. (Reich 1987 82)Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 535 Reich points out that public opinion would like to see lacocca as an entrepreneur, a solitary world-maker, rather than a leader who represents a team of people joined in a common effort. His critique aims at the public veneration of world-makers, based on vigor more than their own claim to fame. What is interesting to us, however, is the fact that Reich stresses the difference between the entrepreneurs as solitary worldmakers and leaders who actually lead other people toward a common vision.It has been repeatedly stressed, especially in analyses of political leadership, that leaders express and embody the wishes of their followers rather than impose those of their own. T he romanticizing tradition, which Reich criticizes, tends to equip the heroes of the day with the capacities of leaders, entrepreneurs and managers all turn into one, where they lead the bundlees to worlds of their own making, waiting for nature to cooperate. In practice, however, not only should the three roles be divided among different people, but even their performance should be brought much closer to reality.If one talks to people employed by organizations led by charismatic leaders, one discovers that they learn about their leaders visions from the mass media (sometimes from internal videotapes) and that leaders themselves, busy in the TV studio, only have a vague idea of what is happening in their organizations (Schwartz 1989). Organizations are run with the help of Standard Operating Procedures of which culture is perhaps the most powerful and impersonal control processes, the latter initiated and fed by many different actors, none of whom accepts province for the actua l course of events.The stay pockets of autonomy are filled with individual creativity and self-control which rarely comes from the leaders (on leaders necessary distance from organizational action, see Brunsson 1989). So, what is leadership all about? In 1978, at the dawn of the new leadership era, a curious book was published, entitled Leadership Where else can we go? (edited by McCall and Lombardo), which included contributions from the greatest authorities in the field (Jeffrey Pfeffer, Karl Weick, Louis Pondy). The articles challenged all the conventional visions of leadership and came up with new images.The most famous of these was perhaps Pfeffers article The ambiguity of leadership. Pfeffer stated that there was not enough evidence to indicate either the effect of leadership or, more significantly, the conditions under which leadership might be expected to have more or less impact on organizational outcomes (Pfeffer 1977/1978 23). Leaders serve as symbols representing the per sonal causation of social events. Such personal attribution of causality is a confirmation of the feasibility to control events, one of the most important stakes in human beings fight against destiny. Occupants of leadership positions come to assume symbolic value, and the attribution of causality to those positions serves to reinforce the organizational construction of meaning that provides the appearance of simplicity and controllability. (Pfeffer 1977/1978 29) 536 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Creating this illusion of control over caboodle (Brunsson 1989 Czarniawska 1985) lies at the core of leaders symbolic performance. Leadership should be seen as a political, symbolic process and understood and evaluated in this survey.While accepting this postulate, we propose to extend the symbolic perspective to the two other roles entrepreneurs and managers. Entrepreneurship Reconsidered The late 1980s saw a revival of a long forgotten role that of the entrepreneur, which, fo r a while, seemed to be petrified in one epoch that of early capitalism. The contemporary version of this role, embedded into monetary supply-side capitalism, is well described by Kaplan To get things done through individuals striking out on their own (1987 86). The role is ven better understood when contrasted with that of drones (Reich 1987), that is, those who keep the empires and the big conglomerates going. Entrepreneurs, in the 1990s as in the 1880s, create new social and organizational realities. They work against the existing social structure, not by opposing it by e. g. political means, but by behaving as if the existing structure did not exist. By ignoring the established ways of thinking and action, they make dreams come true. Drones are then the carriers of entrepreneurial ideas. Entrepreneurs and drones alike represent two extreme personalities, born by two extreme social realities.Todays social and economic structures tend to moderate both. On the one hand, revolution ary innovation became complex and inordinately costly on the other, the everyday running of empires requires innovation and social change. Also, the individualism of entrepreneurship contrasts with the realities of everyday life and family structures, at least in the western industrialized part of the globe where we live and work. The freedom for acting out male dreams is curbed by womens emancipation, followed by changing division of work at home, and womens attempts to acquire managerial positions.The dual career problems and glass ceilings discovered by women in the corporate context leads to more and more women opening small companies of their own. A growing proportion of entrepreneurial businesses in Europe and Africa have been established by women. History will show whether these new entrepreneurs will also fall into the luring trap of empire building supported by traditional economic success criteria, or whether they will redefine entrepreneurship by tying it to different arc hetypes. IVIanagement Defended . . . he executive leader is not a leader of men only but of something we are learning to call the total situation. This includes facts, present and potential aims Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 537 and purposes of men. Out of a welter of fact, experience, desires, aims, the leader must find the unifying thread. He must see a whole, not a mere kaleidoscope of pieces. He must sec the relation between all the different factors in a situation. (Follet 1949 51) It was with these words that, as early as the 1940s, bloody shame Parker Follet tried to defend the need for management rather than just for leadership.In the 1970s, Zaleznik launched the insightful thesis that while leaders are needed in times of crisis and change, managers represent the everyday rationality of welfare and affluence (Zaleznik 1977 see also Czarniawska-Joerges 1989). Machiavelli, it seems, wrote for managers and not for leaders. Leaders sometimes react to planetary w ork as to an affliction (Zaleznik 1977 201). They may work in organizations, but they never belong to them (1977 205). The 1980s brought in a heavier assault managers lacked not only leadership but entrepreneurship as well.Always a gallant knight of management, nib Drucker asserts that they are all the same Management is the new technology (rather than any specific new science or invention) that is making the American economy into an entrepreneurial economy (. . . ) Entrepreneurship requires above all exertion of the basic concepts, the basic techne, of management to new problems and new opportunities. (Drucker 1985 17) The concept of intrapreneurship (Pinchot 1985) is, in fact, the most extreme attempt to join management and entrepreneurship in the service of large organizations.Roger Kaplan comments drily For society to work, you need more than robust little capitalists (Kaplan 1987 89). Managers stand for rationality, as Zaleznik rightly pointed out, and they have not disappea red. As late as 1986, Hales asked again what do they do? on his way to clarification and synthesis between managers behaviour and the management function (Hales 1986 112). We shall now look at all three from a symbolic perspective only. In this endeavour, we shall look for help in archetypical personages known from belles lettres. This is, however, an illustratory device, and is arbitrary in character.The readers are encouraged to look for other images or metaphors which render explicit that which the archetypes childbed into perceptions of executive roles as designed by both the actors and their audience. wherefore Are Leaders So Attractive? As we see it, the most appropriate figure representing the leaders role is that of Moses. It embraces, for example, the three leadership archetypes distinguished by Frost and Egri (forthcoming) The Warrior, the Healer and the Magician. A perceptive analysis of Moses political leadership, rendered by Wildavsky (1984), provides a good example of what is expected of a leader.It took Moses 40 years to take the Jews to their land, although 40 days would have been enough, but he had everything 538 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff that a leader should have a visioti, a will to lead, atid a cotitact with God. We do not intend to follow Wildavskys intricate reasoning. For present purposes, it suffices to notice that Moses represents the epitome of male and paternal leadership (a nursing nonplus, Wildavsky calls him, although his nursing methods were rather cruel). His fate also indicates the primarily symbolic role of the leader he never reached the Promised Land, he was not needed there.The problem with Moseses is, that they have a tendency to sacrifice people in the name of obscure external sources of legitimacy. Additionally, common sense and good organization is not their speciality. Moseses are good in crises, but otherwise they are not the most efficient. In everyday life one contacts a manager of a travel agency to go to Israel. Does it mean that leaders are not responsible for what happens, because they do not actually cause it? Edelman answers this question in the followers way They do identify themselves with particular courses of action and inaction and so deserve responsibility for them.But the assumption that leaders have caused the events for which they take responsibility is reductionist because it ignores the consequences of historical developments, material conditions, and interpretations of those conditions. Except as minor elements of a complex transaction, leaders cannot provide security or bring about change. (1988 65) An opposite type of leadership failure is the refusal to perform according to a script expected in given conditions. Maybe it is actually the other side of the same coin, that is, an ill-judged belief on the part of the leader that he or she is truly a causative factor.What is then perceived as successful leadership, if it is not the act of bringing about a change? It is a dramatic performance which fulfils the expectations of both audience and co-actors, while retaining contradictions in the service of dramatic effect, but hold in negative and threatening aspects to a necessary minimum and, above all, a skilful use of stage set and a talented improvization, tuned to prevailing moods (see also Westley and Mintzberg 1989). These are very demanding skills superfluously, high visibility and high cost connected to failure contribute to the market value of this role.Last but not least, high salary and high perks prove, in themselves, that the leader is who he is supposed to be the person who controls fate. The successful performance confirms the accuracy of the attribution. why Are Managers Least exchangeabled? Like the leader, the manager has also a symbolic function to fulfil that of introducing and keeping order, opposing entropy. But unlike the leader, he is not given the splendour of a Moses-like performance. He is a Miser, or wors e still, a Scrooge, without imagination, with his ridiculous common sense and care for money and things.Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 539 There are probably many mythical biographies representing the archetype of a manager. We took the Miser for his obvious similarity to an accountant. Misers are clearly comic characters, and we gladly laugh at them, as much as we need them. In the course of organizational life, however, this laughter becomes often bitter. Misers have a strong tendency to treat people as things. Could anything be more cruel than this rigorous economy he inflicts on us, this unnatural parsimony under which we perforce languish? The Miser, Act One) This is Cleante speaking to Elise, but wouldnt we like to join him and La Fleche (A plague on all misers and their miserly ways ) whenever we have spoken to our money-controllers? If the great leaders sometimes do a great deal of good by being othewise occupied (speaking to some god or other on some faraway mo untain), managers sit at home, and manage Let us have you all in here. I want to give you instructions for this evening see that everybody has his job. Come here. peeress Claude, well start with you (. . . ) Your job is to clean up all round, and do be careful not to rub furniture too hard.Im afraid of your wearing it out. Then, Im putting you in charge of the bottles during the supper. If theres a single one missing or if anything is broken I shall hold you responsible and take it out of your wages. (Harpagon, The Miser, Act Three) A manager would, of course, find out the shortest way between Egypt and Israel and the cheapest means of transportation, and where would we be with our legend? Boland and OLearys (1988) amusing and insightful analysis of images of accounting in advertising illustrates this point very well.The advertisement artists attempted to project an image of a creative controller supported by clever machines but the laughable picture of a man with sleevelets and glasses always crept in. The enemy of creativity and change, the Miser nevertheless symbolizes order, the value which is just as indispensable to organization as control over the fate which Moses promised to his people. At any rate, manager is the one with the truly economic mind, ridiculous as it might seem to all who care about higher things. Why Are Entrepreneurs Admired and Feared? Who are entrepreneurs in terms of their dramatic performance?It is difficult to say as, unlike leaders and managers, who are limited to the political and/or organizational stage, entrepreneurs represent an everymans dream of the successful life. They are Columbuses, treasure-hunters and Horatio Algers heroes all in one. Their task is to create new worlds, often with a mainly pecuniary interest in the background. In a sense, their play is most often a tragedy, while leaders come from a drama and managers from a comedy. They might become Macbeths if things go wrong, but also inventors like Faust, who wa nted to be immortal and succeeded indeed, it depends on very individual moral judgement as to 40 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff whether we see Faust as a failure or as a total success. When successful, entrepreneurs acquire God-like (or Satan-like) properties in eyes of the rest of the people those who can create worlds are to be both worshipped and feared. In the beginning was meaning In the beginning was power In the beginning was action (Faust) How can one translate Fausts dreams into modern economic terms? One possibility is some version of the American Dream, joining the archetype of the adventurer and the entrepreneur. Take, for example, the story of Uncle Jake.In 1929, Uncle Jake left his family home and the horse-breeding stir inherited from his father in Connecticut for Alaska. His mother and friends stayed behind that is, those friends who did not commit suicide after the Great Depression. The crash did not, however, influence Uncle Jake, neither economicall y nor psychologically his optimism seemed enhanced by the dramas around him. This is how John Hawkes epos Adventures in the Alaskan Skin Trade (1942) starts. It builds up a character similar to harry Dick and other Horatio Alger stories, but makes it clear that the economic success is only a means and not the end in itself, as in Faust.Ragged Dick, for example, was a self-made man, the intrepid capitalist, a person who became rich and made others happier by gambling on a new product or innovation. But Uncle Jake never got really rich. He stands for freedom, creativity and dream-building. The materialistic character of the dream has to do with another aspect of the American Dream success as measured by money (which in old Europe was usually measured by pohtical influence). The social costs Jake created by going to Alaska were enormous.He barely noticed his wifes death his little girl became a prostitute (there were not many ways for symbolizing womens failure in life in those days ) until the day when she managed to free herself from his influence and could reflect on her father He was an artist of adventurous life. The exclusivity of the adventure was more important to him than the treasures he constantly promised to me and my mother. In the eyes of the daughter Jake was not an entrepreneur at all. He was only speaking as such. We are reminded of Iacocca again has he created a world or did he only speak as if?In a radical thought of Goodman (1978), this difference is immaterial. Until somebody comes with a better story, Iacocca will remain the author of Chryslers success in the eyes of the public. In his sharp-worded analysis of the case of El-Sayed (the former chairman of a Swedish company who, after a dazzling success, ended up in prison), Kets de Vries observes All entrepreneurs need dreams, but in dreaming they are not always effective in distinguishing fact from fancy (1990a 683). When they succeed, this very trait is seen as a source of their success. Leaders On and Off the Organizationai Stage 541When they fail, they fail for the same reason. The line between a dream and a distortion of reality is a tentative one. But all of them, Fausts and jakes and Dicks, have one thing in common they leave behind a trail of broken hearts, crushed realities and, in general, extremely heavy costs (they are no Misers ) In order to better contrast entrepreneurs with managers we can take another real-life but mythologized example, that of Columbus. As 1992 comes close and both Seville and Genoa are preparing for great celebrations, it becomes clear that Columbus discovered America due to his ignorance and mythomaniac tendencies.An Italian physician with a passion for geography told him, on the basis of several wrong estimations, that it is possible to reach India by going there on an Eastern route. It has been said, by Columbus apologets, that he discovered America whereas other, better educated entrepreneurs did not. Actually, they did not be cause they were managers in the lordly sense of the word. Apparently, the Portuguese navigators knew very well that such a continent existed, had all the estimations correct, and planned the discovery of America as a next project after having reached India via the horse opera route.Whereas most of the Columbus biographers ridicule mental rigidity and lack of intuition on the part of the managers from the Portuguese School of Navigation, the more mundane interpretation would have it that they did not go to India via America because they knew it was impossible. As an administrator of the new land, Columbus and his two brothers gave an incredible show of incompetence and cruelty, to the extent that Ferdinand and Isabella were forced to call them back and appoint a new administrator.Such is then the story of Columbus a real entrepreneur, as opposed to Columbus as a mythical personage (Mendelssohn 1976), but in both versions one thing is clear entrepreneurs tend to trample over old w orlds in their attempts to create new. Why should they be so hailed and respected, then? Because they also bring change, building new realities on the ruins of the old. Personages and Processes As we have attempted to show, it is an illusion that one role conquers the remaining two.We could go further and further back and, most likely, find the same (as Croziers example of Saint-Simon already indicates) theoreticians quarrelling about which role is the best, and practitioners playing all three. The fashion of the day elevates one role above the other and then abandons it again. Now we need order, next we need change, and then we need to control our fate. What shapes the fashion, then? Reading the organization theory debate as it has evolved over the last 70 years, one acquires an impression that a demand for leaders, managers or 542 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Woiff ntrepreneurs is dictated by organizations themselves straight to the researchers ears. Then, in an intellectual discourse about the functioning of organizations, the researchers establish which properties the executives should have. They inform the practitioners about what is desired and the practitioners try to follow norms as well as they can. The next wave of research results and theories brings new developments to light, the theory is perfected and the practice follows suit. Such an egocentric representation can be sustained only as a result of firm isolation from the political, social and economic context of organizing.Indeed, with few and unsystematic exceptions, organizational literature neglects what is happening in the world around organizations. Sometimes a simple agent called market comes into the picture, but even then just as a part of environment which is, indeed, more and more what organizations managed to enact around themselves. Organizations, the open systems, are for ever immortalized in a closed system of an artificially created frame of reference. We would like to point out that organizations act in historically shaped economic and political circumstances.If we bring these into the picture, the leadership debate can be portrayed, for example, as follows Figure 1 1920s 1929 1930s 1939-1945 1940s 1950s An Historical supposal Entrepreneurs Depression (economic crisis) Leaders WAR (poiiticai crisis) Managers Entrepreneurs (economic hope) 1960s 1968 1970s 1973-1975 1980s 1990s Leaders (poiiticai crisis) Managers (economic crisis? ) Leaders Entrepreneurs? The 1920s seemed to herald a recovery from the economic catastrophe of the 1st World War and the entrepreneurs were called for to create prosperity with their innovative thinking. The Great Depression brought an abrupt end to this dream.Frightened and in despair, people called for leaders. And leaders they got Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Churchill, Roosevelt. We shall not duck into what many historians, on many occasions, have analyzed with delight was it chance, a historically determined development, or all of those. We assume that people try to pass judgment meaning both to random events and to planned action. It is this factor that stands for the continuity in the process, and not mechanically connected chains of causes and effects. The war made people suspect of leaders and gave rise to operational research in the U. S. A.Managers were also welcome in Europe where a big job of restructuring the post-war economies was started. It became possible to think in terms of economic challenge, not only in terms of economic necessity. Entrepreneurs acquired room to play. Slowly, the Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 543 prosperity became feasible and leaders were needed again, to push forward and expand their successes. The imperialist ambitions and the failure of new, democratic leaders brought the political unrest of the Sixties. Throughout the rational 1970s, managers were in vogue, to introduce some order and rationality into the world.The oil crisis, however, left in its wake the realization of a possible world-wide economic crisis. People turned to leaders again. As the crisisfeeling dissolved, however, the leaders were somewhat diminished in importance. It was Gorbachov, at least so long as he behaved as a political entrepreneur, who collected the popularity laurels. This is, of course, only one of several possible stories. We do not claim the monopoly on the one and only true story rather, we would like to see more historical organizational research that traces down social, and not quasi-biological (as in population ecology) developments.Additionally, such stories would have to pay increased attention to the rhetorics that are used in sex act them (McCloskey 1986). In this paper, for example, we have used what is considered to be a chauvinist language we have spoken of executives as if they were men. This was done on purpose the dramatical metaphors gave us an additional insight into a matter that is becoming fashionable now, namely, why ar e there so few women leaders? Simply, the roles are not the female roles.There are, of course, some convincing performances, especially by female Moseses, such as Ghandi or Thatcher, but nevertheless their performance is reminiscent of Shakespearean times when men performed all female roles brilliant but artificial. Archetypical female roles are hard to fit into modern organizations neither Dame aux Camellias nor Mother Svea have good chances, at least not in executive roles. In this respect, the organizational theatre has a very traditional repertoire. Researchers As Theatre Critics The question that concludes our paper and, hopefully, starts a discussion is What should or can researchers do?Shall we contribute to the debate as participants? Shall we attempt to unmask and deconstruct it? Shall we write new scripts or ironize the old ones? place to our theatre metaphor, we see our choice as analogous to that facing the theatre critics. We can opt for what we ourselves like best, or prompt the directors to keep the public content, or to keep the public on its toes. Over time, however, we should be able to arrive at a more systematic reflection on the organizational theatre. It would be illuminating to be able to follow the process of ppointing and dismantling the favourites in the social consciousness to see when and how people reach to the repertoire of archetypes to exchange the last one for another. This means following not only historical developments, but also the shaping of fashions, the development of organizational and occupational cultures, the ups and downs of professionalization, and other social pro- 544 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Roif Wolff cesses of sense-making. The leadership debate can thus be seen as a transformation of symbols which both follows and announces other kinds of transformation.Organization research can then evaluate contemporary performances and try to build a theory of organizational theatre in a historical perspective. Note * The first version of this paper was presented at the 4th multinational SCOS Conferenee on Organizational Symbolism and Corporate Culture, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, June 28-30, 1989. We would like to acknowledge helpful comments from Peter J. Frost, Gareth Morgan and Susan Schneider in preparing the present version. References Bass, Bernard M. 1960 Leadership, psychology and organizational behavior. newly York Harper. Bass, Bernard M. 984 Leadership Good, better, best. Organizational Dynamics 26-40. Bass, Bernard M. 1985 Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York Free Press. Bennis, Warren, and Burt Nanus 1985 Leaders, The strategies for taking charge. New York Harper and Row. 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Price Floors and Price Ceilings

Kristen Fowler Economics April 16, 2012 n Price Controls How efficient are punctuate ceilings and price homes? If you think integrity is better than the other, make sure to bring up examples from our economy to validate your stand. Price ceilings and price floors are essential aspects of our economy. Price ceilings are government enacted laws preventing suppliers from establishing prices of mainstay resources higher than a certain price, which is set by the government. Price floors are price marginals that can be charged for a good or service.These price controls are put in place in order to mention an affordable lifestyle and protect consumers from suffering form unfair inflation. However, when non penalize properly, price controls can become ineffective. Price ceilings are enacted in order to benefit consumers. Price ceilings prevent businesses from charging unfair prices. For example, if only one seller has glide path to a certain crossing that is a necessity to consumer s, without a price ceiling they have the ability to charge an outrageous price. Price ceilings also facilitate in keeping the cost of living reasonable in the case of high inflation.If prices rise faster than incomes do, people will be unable to maintain a comfortable standard of living. However, when enacted out improperly price ceilings can have a negative outcome. It is important that price ceilings are set higher up the market price. If a price ceiling is set below the market price, it will result in a shortage. An example of misuse of price ceilings is when a price ceiling is established on a product in which the price is thought to be too high notwithstanding a much efficient means of solving this problem would be to increase production.An ineffective price ceiling is one that is set above the market equilibrium price. The product is already selling for much lower than the price ceiling, so unless the price greatly increases, the price ceiling serves no vital purpose. Pri ce floors are a government imposed limit of how low a price can be for a good or service. I do not cerebrate that there should be a price floor set on products or services, and that the law of supply and demand should determine the pricing of products. However, a obligatory price floor our government has in place is minimum wage.Minimum wage is essential because if employers were able to pay employees as little as they want, workers may not be able to afford the cost of living. Although minimum wage is beneficial to the people, it is also beneficial to the government as well. By setting a minimum wage, the need for public assistance decreases. Setting a minimum wage also encourages consumption. If people just have enough money to pay for their elemental needs, they will not have money to spend and put back into the economy.The effectiveness of price floors greatly depends on where it is set in respect to the market equilibrium price. If the price floor is set underneath the marke t equilibrium price, it has no effect since the consumer is already paying a higher price. This price floor will not be effective unless the market price decreases. A price floor will make a direct impact on the market if it is set above the market equilibrium price. By setting a higher price floor, you are ensuring that more products can be made, however there are negative results as well.Consumers will recognize that they are now paying a higher price for the same product, which may withdraw to less consumption, directly leading to a surplus. This idea holds true in the example of minimum wage as well. If the minimum wage rate is set too high, more unskilled workers will enter the labor force, and less employers will be willing to pay this rate leading to less hiring. because setting the minimum wage rate too high will directly lead to increased unemployment. http//smallbusiness. chron. com/advantages-disadvantages-price-ceiling-25210. html